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Thread: marijuana tcm?!?!?!?!!?

  1. #151
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    Quote Originally Posted by herb ox View Post
    But perhaps it was my bad by goading you on with my hopeless human illogic. Ever since Leonard Nimoy passed away my logical side has been suffering
    Oh I wouldn't worry about your logic Mr. Ox.

    Soco frequently demonstrates a far worse logical fallacy. That is the fallacy of appealing to logical fallacy (argumentum ad logicam). A point itself is not wrong because of the way it is argued or arrived at. The point itself must also be tackled as well as the working method. Frequently people arrive at the correct answer through poor reasoning and people can arrive at the wrong answer through good reasoning. We are human beings and not computers. Large parts of our reasoning process are hidden even from ourselves and we cannot express every facet of our workings. Conclusions cannot be dismissed because of a lack of logic in what a person happens to articulate as their thought process, the conclusion itself must be dealt with directly. Fallacious arguments can still arrive at true conclusions.

    Ignoratio elenchi, this is frequently Soco's fallacy.
    Last edited by RenDaHai; 03-23-2015 at 03:09 PM.

  2. #152
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    Cannabis VS Cancer - this plant packs a PUNCH

    Back on topic - it appears cannabis may indeed have a place in health promoting practice. CBD aka cannabidiol has been found to have pain-killing and inflammation reducing properties. Last summer I had a long conversation with a gentleman who's wife had been suffering from a rare form of cervical cancer that was not responding to conventional treatment. As a last resort, she started juicing the fresh leaves of a particular strain of cannabis. Soon thereafter, her doctors were puzzled as her blood analysis numbers were improving and it seemed she was beating the cancer. Although I am not sure of the final outcome, it was certainly intriguing, to say the least. Also, I have a client who is taking CBD oil for prostate cancer and I just received word today that his PSA (prostate specific antigen) levels were HALF of what they were 6 months ago, before he started CBD therapy. This is a case where there is definitely an effect, as this chap doesn't even have a prostate anymore, so any level of PSA detectable is considered to be a harbinger of tumor formation.

    The following is quoted directly from the NIH (National Institute on Health) cancer portal website - see http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/p...essional/page4 for complete references list, etc.

    Cannabis and Cannabinoids

    Cannabinoids are a group of 21-carbon–containing terpenophenolic compounds produced uniquely by Cannabis species (e.g., Cannabis sativa L.) .[1,2] These plant-derived compounds may be referred to as phytocannabinoids. Although delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive ingredient, other known compounds with biologic activity are cannabinol, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabichromene, cannabigerol, tetrahydrocannabivarin, and delta-8-THC. CBD, in particular, is thought to have significant analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity without the psychoactive effect (high) of delta-9-THC.

    Antitumor Effects

    One study in mice and rats suggested that cannabinoids may have a protective effect against the development of certain types of tumors.[3] During this 2-year study, groups of mice and rats were given various doses of THC by gavage. A dose-related decrease in the incidence of hepatic adenoma tumors and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) was observed in the mice. Decreased incidences of benign tumors (polyps and adenomas) in other organs (mammary gland, uterus, pituitary, testis, and pancreas) were also noted in the rats. In another study, delta-9-THC, delta-8-THC, and cannabinol were found to inhibit the growth of Lewis lung adenocarcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo .[4] In addition, other tumors have been shown to be sensitive to cannabinoid-induced growth inhibition.[5-8]

    Cannabinoids may cause antitumor effects by various mechanisms, including induction of cell death, inhibition of cell growth, and inhibition of tumor angiogenesis invasion and metastasis.[9-12] Two reviews summarize the molecular mechanisms of action of cannabinoids as antitumor agents.[13,14] Cannabinoids appear to kill tumor cells but do not affect their nontransformed counterparts and may even protect them from cell death. For example, these compounds have been shown to induce apoptosis in glioma cells in culture and induce regression of glioma tumors in mice and rats, while they protect normal glial cells of astroglial and oligodendroglial lineages from apoptosis mediated by the CB1 receptor.[9]

    The effects of delta-9-THC and a synthetic agonist of the CB2 receptor were investigated in HCC.[15] Both agents reduced the viability of HCC cells in vitro and demonstrated antitumor effects in HCC subcutaneous xenografts in nude mice. The investigations documented that the anti-HCC effects are mediated by way of the CB2 receptor. Similar to findings in glioma cells, the cannabinoids were shown to trigger cell death through stimulation of an endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway that activates autophagy and promotes apoptosis. Other investigations have confirmed that CB1 and CB2 receptors may be potential targets in non-small cell lung carcinoma [16] and breast cancer.[17]

    An in vitro study of the effect of CBD on programmed cell death in breast cancer cell lines found that CBD induced programmed cell death, independent of the CB1, CB2, or vanilloid receptors. CBD inhibited the survival of both estrogen receptor–positive and estrogen receptor–negative breast cancer cell lines, inducing apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner while having little effect on nontumorigenic mammary cells.[18] Other studies have also shown the antitumor effect of cannabinoids (i.e., CBD and THC) in preclinical models of breast cancer.[19,20]

    CBD has also been demonstrated to exert a chemopreventive effect in a mouse model of colon cancer.[21] In this experimental system, azoxymethane increased premalignant and malignant lesions in the mouse colon. Animals treated with azoxymethane and CBD concurrently were protected from developing premalignant and malignant lesions. In in vitro experiments involving colorectal cancer cell lines, the investigators found that CBD protected DNA from oxidative damage, increased endocannabinoid levels, and reduced cell proliferation. In a subsequent study, the investigators found that the antiproliferative effect of CBD was counteracted by selective CB1 but not CB2 receptor antagonists, suggesting an involvement of CB1 receptors.[22]

    Another investigation into the antitumor effects of CBD examined the role of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1).[12] ICAM-1 expression has been reported to be negatively correlated with cancer metastasis. In lung cancer cell lines, CBD upregulated ICAM-1, leading to decreased cancer cell invasiveness.

    In an in vivo model using severe combined immunodeficient mice, subcutaneous tumors were generated by inoculating the animals with cells from human non-small cell lung carcinoma cell lines.[23] Tumor growth was inhibited by 60% in THC-treated mice compared with vehicle-treated control mice. Tumor specimens revealed that THC had antiangiogenic and antiproliferative effects. However, research with immunocompetent murine tumor models has demonstrated immunosuppression and enhanced tumor growth in mice treated with THC.[24,25]

    In addition, both plant-derived and endogenous cannabinoids have been studied for anti-inflammatory effects. A mouse study demonstrated that endogenous cannabinoid system signaling is likely to provide intrinsic protection against colonic inflammation.[26] As a result, a hypothesis that phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids may be useful in the risk reduction and treatment of colorectal cancer has been developed.[27-30]

    CBD may also enhance uptake of cytotoxic drugs into malignant cells. Activation of the transient receptor potential vanilloid type 2 (TRPV2) has been shown to inhibit proliferation of human glioblastoma multiforme cells and overcome resistance to the chemotherapy agent carmustine.[31] In an in vitro model, CBD increased TRPV2 activation and increased uptake of cytotoxic drugs, leading to apoptosis of glioma cells without affecting normal human astrocytes. This suggests that coadministration of CBD with cytotoxic agents may increase drug uptake and potentiate cell death in human glioma cells. Also, CBD together with THC may enhance the antitumor activity of classic chemotherapeutic drugs such as temozolomide in some mouse models of cancer.[13,32]

    Appetite Stimulation

    Many animal studies have previously demonstrated that delta-9-THC and other cannabinoids have a stimulatory effect on appetite and increase food intake. It is believed that the endogenous cannabinoid system may serve as a regulator of feeding behavior. The endogenous cannabinoid anandamide potently enhances appetite in mice.[33] Moreover, CB1 receptors in the hypothalamus may be involved in the motivational or reward aspects of eating.[34]

    Analgesia

    Understanding the mechanism of cannabinoid-induced analgesia has been increased through the study of cannabinoid receptors, endocannabinoids, and synthetic agonists and antagonists. The CB1 receptor is found in both the central nervous system (CNS) and in peripheral nerve terminals. Similar to opioid receptors, increased levels of the CB1 receptor are found in regions of the brain that regulate nociceptive processing.[35] CB2 receptors, located predominantly in peripheral tissue, exist at very low levels in the CNS. With the development of receptor-specific antagonists, additional information about the roles of the receptors and endogenous cannabinoids in the modulation of pain has been obtained.[36,37]

    Cannabinoids may also contribute to pain modulation through an anti-inflammatory mechanism; a CB2 effect with cannabinoids acting on mast cell receptors to attenuate the release of inflammatory agents, such as histamine and serotonin, and on keratinocytes to enhance the release of analgesic opioids has been described.[38-40] One study reported that the efficacy of synthetic CB1- and CB2-receptor agonists were comparable with the efficacy of morphine in a murine model of tumor pain.[41]
    And so I ask - what is really so evil about this plant?


    Keep your friends close, but your seed supply closer

    herb ox

  3. #153
    greetings,

    The only thing evil about cannabis is the propaganda that follows it. The term "sativa", I have been told, is a classification that means that it is not dangerous to Mankind; e.g., poosie-sativa.


    mickey

  4. #154
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    Heh. I had never heard of that before, so I searched "poosie sativa" and google made me giggle.

    As far as I knew, (and while invasive species and environmental chemistry are not my specialties, ethnomedicine is ) the term "sativum" reefers to a plant that has been cultivated by humans and appears as sativa, sativum and sativus but all implying essentially the same thing.

    But yeah, Mickey, that makes sense what you are saying though - if these plants are cultivated, I suppose they are GRAS - generally recognized as safe or somehow of use to humankind. So, point taken

    peace out

    herb ox

  5. #155
    Greetings herb ox,

    I can't believe you actually looked that one up.

    Even funnier is the major typo in your response. Now I understand why you ALWAYS come back to this thread after a long absence from the forum. Can you find the typo? I have a feeling it might take you a while. I'm dying laughing here!!!


    mickey

  6. #156
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    That's no typo

    herb ox

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    When stuff comes from the natural environment, corporations are unable to call it their own so they mount initiatives to pretend the product is no good or it is useless. But they have always found a way to usurp their own bad press and now we have corporations getting into the marijuana business as they see the ROI. Before the present 9read 'entrepreneural) investment was 0- nil but now the legal corporate hegemony fee is 1/2/million as a basic fee to meet the state requirements. But again, look at the people spending 5,10 15 years for possession +whatever bad act they were doing at time of apprehension! Then you have the Corporation Jail Industrial Complex so that is double the ROI and still they make out like the legal bandits they are and will continue to be.

    Isn't the US Congress a wonderful retirement haven for alleged crooks who can get away with anything! Some of these US Congress fools call for nations to not negotiate with the US Government in preventing a nuclear fallout and they are seen as heroes. WTF Ok my rant is over. ganja for everyone!

  8. #158
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    Slightly OT

    Aussie deported after cops find marijuana farm in his Jiangsu apartment



    A 34-year-old Australian man living in Changshu, Jiangsu province was sent back Down Under on May 18 after he had been held in detention for 13 days on charges of growing illegal drugs and drug use.

    The suspect, identified as David, was aware of China's stringent regulations on drugs, but still decided to go ahead and grow ****loads of marijuana in his rented house for his own consumption.

    The man reportedly purchased a book about cultivating the greenery during a trip back to Australia. He purchased some seeds online and got to work turning the attic of his Changshu apartment into a glorious growing den.

    Despite the unfavorable planting conditions in the space, he invested in several devices to help with the growth of the 28 leafy plants, including a Carbon dioxide generator, an ultraviolet lamp, a heat lamp and a ventilating fan.



    David loved his marijuana plants. He told police that he played the sound of "birds' chirping" on repeat to stimulate the plants' growth, and that he spent almost three months nurturing them.

    Cops confiscated two bags of marijuana seeds in a house raid after receiving a tipoff from a neighbor.

    According to Li Duoyi, a police official, David had been in China for 14 years and was working as an English teacher in a Changshu training center.

    In China, growing, selling and possessing marijuana are all illegal activities, but that hasn't stopped some people from testing out their green thumbs. In 2013, a 700 plant-strong indoor cannabis farm was raided in Shenzhen, leading to the arrest of seven people.

    In more recent weed-related antics, Jaycee Chan, son of Jackie Chan, was sentenced to six months in jail for providing a venue at which to smoke the greenery. Months later, Jackie Chan was named Singapore's first celebrity anti-drug ambassador because the world makes no sense.

    By Lucy Liu
    We discussed Jaycee Chan's PRC drug bust here
    Gene Ching
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  9. #159
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    ttt 4 2016!


    Could this be the world’s oldest bong?
    OSCAR PASCUAL on May 18, 2015 at 12:30 pm

    You may smoke one and/or spill its putrid used water daily, but did you ever stop to think about the historical origin of the bong?

    The question was posed recently when a Reddit user claimed to have found an ancient African relic while scuba diving, reports the National Marijuana News.

    After providing pictures of a crusty old water pipe for fellow Redditors, the particular piece was found to be a replication of a bong design that traces all the way back to the 18th century.

    Could the original be the world’s first bong?

    According to DabsMag, the answer is “no.”

    They found that the earliest written record of anyone using bongs dates back to the 16th Century Ming Dynasty in China, which was a major cultural hub for cannabis and hemp cultivation at the time. It also wouldn’t be a bad guess to say that bongs originate from Asia, since they’re designed to work similarly to a hukkah.

    But according to archaeologist J.C. Dombrowski, the bong actually did come from Africa. Although its use was never historically documented, similar water pipes and devices found in Ethiopia and other parts of eastern and central Africa have been carbon dated as early as the 1300s.

    The fact that Africans were getting stoned some 200 years prior to China’s recorded history of pot means that bongs did indeed originate from Africa, making the Redditor’s find a legitimate historical artifact, if only it were several hundred years older.

    Regardless of its more recent age, this old bong is still one cool find.





    Photo credit: National Marijuana News
    "Africans were getting stoned some 200 years prior to China’s recorded history of pot" <- This isn't quite right. It may be correct in terms of which culture had the oldest bong, but there is much earlier evidence of marijuana use in China, prior to the Ming.
    Gene Ching
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    Slightly OT

    Not a TCM application, but very old and Chinese...

    In Ancient Grave, 13 Well-Kept Pot Plants
    Man was buried with them about 2.5K years ago
    By Arden Dier, Newser Staff
    Posted Oct 7, 2016 11:06 AM CDT


    File photo of a more modern variety. (AP Photo/Gillian Flaccus)

    (NEWSER) – You probably wouldn't want to smoke the stuff, but archaeologists have discovered the most well-preserved cannabis plants one could hope for in an ancient Chinese burial. The first discovery of its kind comes from the grave of a man aged about 35—possibly a shaman, reports Discover—buried 2,400 to 2,800 years ago in Turpan, China, then a desert oasis along the Silk Road. Said to have Caucasian features, the body was found on a wooden bed with a reed pillow and an "extraordinary cache" of 13 cannabis plants placed diagonally across the chest, each almost 3 feet long, reports National Geographic. Archaeologists have found cannabis leaves and seeds in other ancient burials, but never whole plants.

    This is also the first time archaeologists have seen cannabis used as a burial shroud, study author Hongen Jiang explains in Economic Botany. A few flowering heads on the plants—all others had been cut off—held unripe fruit, suggesting the man was buried in late summer. Researchers believe the cannabis was also fresh, meaning it was grown locally. Why exactly was the Subeixi culture of Turpan growing cannabis? Researchers say they could have made hemp cloth or used the seeds for food. More likely, though, they extracted resin containing cannabinoids like THC from the plant's tiny "hairs" to use in medicine or in ritual, "possibly to facilitate communication between the human and spirit worlds," per NPR. (These burials aimed to ward off demons.)
    Gene Ching
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  11. #161
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    trove of cannabis plants

    I was researching an article on marijuana and ancient China a long time ago, back when I was a freelancer and looking to expand my submission range. Back then, the earliest evidence of marijuana usage was in China, at least as far as I found. I should dig up that source.

    ChineseInvestors.com, Inc. (CIIX) Taps Traditional Chinese Medicine Market with CBD
    February 22, 2017



    No one should have been astonished at the discovery, reported by NPR (http://dtn.fm/ah9NX), of a ‘trove of cannabis plants found in (an) ancient tomb in China’. China represents a past civilization that has sprung many surprises over the centuries, and has given us some of our greatest inventions, including the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing.

    On par with these innovations has been Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), which has relied, in part, on herbal remedies (tui na). The use of plant derivatives to alleviate maladies is as natural to the Chinese as drinking tea, which itself is thought to promote dental health due to a richness of fluoride in some strains, with anti-bacterial and anti-viral properties in others, and is a good source of Vitamin A in still others. Two millennia ago, a ‘tea’ made from hemp was consumed for medical purposes. Now ChineseInvestors.com, Inc. (OTCQB: CIIX) is going back to those roots. The company aims to be ‘the premier provider of cannabidiol (CBD) oil to the Chinese population in mainland China’.

    CBD oil is a compound extracted from the cannabis plant. However, plants bred and grown for their high tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content are commonly referred to as marijuana. THC is psychoactive and is responsible for the ‘high’ that marijuana use provides. Other cannabis plants contain only trace amounts of THC but have high concentrations of CBD, which is the second most common cannabinoid of the 85 or so found in cannabis. Unlike THC, CBD is non-psychotropic. Plants with a preponderance of CBD are called hemp.

    Hemp oil is rich in protein, polyunsaturated fatty acids, omega 6, omega 3 and insoluble fiber. It is a good source of tocopherols or Vitamin E antioxidants and is packed with minerals such as potassium, magnesium, iron, zinc, calcium, and phosphorus, as well as microelements like strontium, thorium, arsenic and chromium. Hemp oil is thought to increase immunity, counteract aging skin and improve cardiovascular health. Several studies show that the linoleic acid present in hemp oil can slow down the aging process and fight psoriasis.

    There have been encouraging reports (http://dtn.fm/P6Ps1) of CBD helping epileptics, and Citizens United for Research in Epilepsy (CURE) has called for more study (http://dtn.fm/Rp9cM) into the use of CBD to treat epilepsy.

    Unlike their western counterparts, Chinese companies have a long history of researching and developing cannabis products. Data published by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) indicate that Chinese firms account for about half of the filings for patents on cannabis products.

    Late last month, CIIX announced it was launching the world’s first CBD health products online store in the Chinese language under the domain name www.ChineseCBDoil.com. The company will use the site to sell CBD oil products to customers in the Chinese mainland, where hemp oil-derived products are legal, and to Chinese speakers in the U.S. and Canada.

    At present, the competitive landscape is clear, with virtually no rivals, and CIIX has signed an agreement with a San Diego producer to white label and distribute a number of CBD products, which, since they are not THC based, are legal in all 50 U.S. states, as well as in China.

    The prospects for success are excellent. Founder and CEO of CIIX, Warren Wang, recently cited an industry study as he announced an alliance with a Chinese private equity firm to raise capital for investment in medical and recreational marijuana ventures:

    “According to The CBD Report published by The Hemp Business Journal, cannabidiol is one of the fastest growing market categories in the U.S. hemp and legal marijuana industries. In 2015, the CBD industry grew from a nearly invisible market… to $202 million in consumer sales, and it is further expected to grow to $2.1 billion in consumer sales by 2020. We are very excited that CIIX is launching the world’s first CBD online store focused on providing CBD health products for Chinese-speaking customers and making it possible for them to order various types of CBD products through www.chinesecbdoil.com.”

    Traditional Chinese medicine is about to experience a renaissance.

    For more information, visit the company’s website at www.ChineseInvestors.com
    Gene Ching
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    "On par with these innovations has been Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), which has relied, in part, on herbal remedies (tui na). "

    I think what they are really referring to is Zhong yao or Cao yao maybe? Tui Na is a type of medical massage. The authors of this article need to do their homework a little more... but then again, in this age of instant "news" I've noticed the standards of reporting have sunken to an all time low. I see typographical and grammatical errors on a daily basis even on major news websites. [insert facepalm here]

    On the other hand, the editorial staff of Kungfu Magazine research and verify their information very well. Hat's off to the Kungfu Magazine folks for creating a scholarly resource within a news stand periodical!

    h. ox

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    Major review from Frontiers in Pharmacology

    Front. Pharmacol., 10 March 2017
    Cannabis in Chinese Medicine: Are Some Traditional Indications Referenced in Ancient Literature Related to Cannabinoids?

    E. Joseph Brand and Zhongzhen Zhao*
    School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
    Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabaceae) has a long history of utilization as a fiber and seed crop in China, and its achenes (“seeds”) as well as other plant parts have been recorded in Chinese medical texts for nearly 2000 years. While the primary applications of cannabis in Chinese medicine center around the use of the achenes, ancient indications for the female inflorescence, and other plant parts include conditions such as pain and mental illness that are the subject of current research into cannabinoids such as cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). However, little previous research has been conducted to analyze the Chinese medical literature in light of recent advances in the pharmacology and taxonomy of cannabis, and most of the relevant Chinese historical records have not yet been translated into Western languages to facilitate textual research. Furthermore, many key questions remain unresolved in the Chinese literature, including how various traditional drug names precisely correspond to different plant parts, as well as the implications of long-term selection for fiber-rich cultivars on the medical applications of cannabis in Chinese medicine. In this article, prominent historical applications of cannabis in Chinese medicine are chronologically reviewed, and indications found in ancient Chinese literature that may relate to cannabinoids such as CBD and Δ9-THC are investigated.

    Introduction
    Cannabis sativa L. has been cultivated in China for millennia for use as a fiber, food, and medicine. References to cannabis are found throughout classical Chinese literature, including in many famous works of philosophy, poetry, agriculture, and medicine. Fiber-rich biotypes of cannabis (hemp) were extensively used in ancient China for clothing and the production of paper, rope, and fishing nets (Dai, 1989), and the achenes (“seeds”) of cannabis have been continuously used in Chinese medicine for at least 1800 years. Today, China is regarded as one of the world's ancient epicenters of hemp cultivation, resulting in a diverse germplasm with genetically distinct regional varieties of fiber-rich hemp that are adapted to local environmental conditions throughout the country (Gao et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2014).

    The prominence of hemp in ancient Chinese culture can be seen by its occurrence in classical literature from the Warring States Period (475–221 BC), including philosophical works by Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi, Zhuangzi, and Mozi, as well as the Classic of Poetry (Shi Jing; Sun, 2016). By the first to second century AD, the ancient Shuowen dictionary (Shuo Wen Jie Zi) featured multiple Chinese characters that illustrate knowledge of the dioecious nature of cannabis and discriminate based on gender (Liu, 1999).

    In the sixth century AD, the agricultural text Essential Techniques for the Welfare of the People (Qi Min Yao Shu) described techniques for the cultivation of hemp in great detail, and its monograph on cannabis cultivation features one of the first textually documented applications of fertilizer in the history of Chinese agriculture (Shi, 1957). This text also demonstrates the knowledge that removal of male plants at the initiation of flowering will result in a lack of seeds; however, the text focuses exclusively on cultivation and harvesting practices to maximize the production of seeds and the quality of fiber and does not reference the deliberate production of seedless cannabis (Shi, 1957).

    It is notable that most classical Chinese references focus on the use of cannabis for its seeds and fiber, with few, if any, explicit references to drug effects seen outside of the medical literature. Although early Chinese medical literature suggests that both drug and fiber biotypes of cannabis were known in ancient times, more research is needed to clarify the implications of these different biotypes in medical applications. Additionally, further research is needed to probe whether the medical applications of cannabis in ancient Chinese literature may relate to non-psychoactive cannabinoids such as cannabidiol (CBD), which may have been present in ancient fiber biotypes as well as drug biotypes (see Figure 1).

    FIGURE 1

    Figure 1. The chemical structures of cannabidiol (CBD, left) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC, right).

    Cannabis in Chinese Medicine
    Cannabis has been continually documented in Chinese medicine for ~1800 years. In the modern era, its achenes (commonly referred to as “seeds” and known in TCM as huomaren 火麻仁) are frequently used as a moistening laxative and are official in the Chinese Pharmacopeia (CP, 2015). All parts of the cannabis plant have been recorded in historical Chinese medical texts, including the achene (seed), female inflorescence, leaf, and root, as well as the cortex of the stalk and the water used to process the stalk into fiber. However, only the achenes (seeds) are currently used in clinical practice (Brand and Wiseman, 2008).

    In contrast to the prominent use of the achenes in Chinese medicine, many applications of cannabis in early Western medicine focused on preparations made from the female flowering tops of drug varieties of cannabis, which were featured in early Western pharmacopeia texts from the nineteenth to twentieth century (Wood, 1918). In the modern era, the investigation of cannabis for medical purposes in the West has continued to primarily focus on cannabinoids, resulting in prescription medicines such as the botanically derived drug “Sativex” by GW Pharmaceuticals (a mixture of Δ9-THC and cannabidiol in an oromucosal spray that is sold by prescription in 15 countries, including the UK, Germany, Italy, Canada, Australia, and Spain; Russo et al., 2007).

    The notable contrast between the medical applications of cannabis in traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine has been poorly explored in current ethnopharmacological literature. Despite the fact that cannabis preparations have been extensively and consistently documented in Chinese bencao (materia medica) texts for ~1800 years, no English-language publications have systematically assessed the medicinal indications of cannabis in the Chinese bencao literature and historical changes in the plant parts used. Few reliable translations of Chinese monographs on cannabis from traditional bencao texts exist, which has led to significant gaps in the Western understanding about how cannabis was used in Chinese medicine.

    Additionally, many problems related to cannabis in TCM remain unresolved in the contemporary Chinese literature. Modern Chinese journal articles as well as historical authors have attempted to clarify the complicated nomenclature of the female inflorescence in bencao literature (Liu and Shang, 1992; Liu, 1999; Liu et al., 2009; Wei et al., 2010), and monographs in modern TCM texts detail different plant parts and their use across a range of historical texts (Editorial Committee, 1977; Cui and Ran, 1993). However, a number of modern and historical Chinese sources contradict each other in terms of which plant parts correspond to certain traditional drug names such as mafen (麻蕡), mahua (麻花), and mabo (麻勃), complicating the interpretation of their medical actions.

    As the difference between drug and fiber varieties of cannabis is largely determined by genetics, the historical and geographic prevalence of different biotypes of cannabis in China likely influenced its applications in Chinese medicine. However, this crucial question has received only limited attention in the Chinese literature. Furthermore, most Chinese publications that have attempted to address the topic of speciation as it relates to the historical application of cannabis in Chinese medicine utilize a relatively simplistic taxonomic model that does not take recent scientific advances into account (Liu and Shang, 1992; Wei et al., 2010).
    continued next post
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    continued from previous post

    Biotypes of Cannabis in China
    The complicated taxonomic history of cannabis has been previously summarized in numerous publications (Schultes et al., 1974; Small and Cronquist, 1976; Hillig and Mahlberg, 2004). Cannabis is often described as a monotypic genus with wide morphological and chemical variation, and the Flora of China and the Chinese Pharmacopeia adopt the monotypic classification of Chinese cannabis as Cannabis sativa L. (Chen and Gilbert, 2006; CP, 2015). By contrast, many of the Chinese publications that have investigated historical questions related to the speciation of cannabis in Chinese medicine across different dynastic periods have adopted a polytypic approach to nomenclature that primarily differentiates the genus into two species based on chemotype, with varieties focused on fiber and seed production described as C. sativa L. and drug varieties described as C. indica Lamarck (Liu and Shang, 1992; Liu, 1999).

    Cannabis is a classic example of taxonomic debates related to “lumping vs. splitting” (i.e., whether the genus should be considered as monotypic or polytypic) as well as morphological vs. chemotype distinctions. Advances in DNA research have added further complexity to the picture, and terms such as “broad leaflet hemp” (BLH) vs. “broad leaflet drug” (BLD) and “narrow leaflet hemp” (NLH) vs. “narrow leaflet drug” (NLD) have recently been used to describe cannabis varieties based on a combination of morphology and chemotype (Piluzza et al., 2013).

    The complex debate about cannabis taxonomy initially developed after Lamarck proposed the name C. indica in 1785 to describe psychoactive Indian cannabis in contradistinction to Linnaeus' description of non-psychoactive European hemp (Hillig and Mahlberg, 2004), which was regarded as C. sativa L. While Lamarck's original type specimen of C. indica reflected a narrow leaflet drug (NLD) variety, Schultes later applied the name C. indica to refer to broad leaflet drug (BLD) varieties from Afghanistan that shared the characteristic of psychoactivity but differed in morphology (Clarke and Merlin, 2013). In contrast to European hemp, which is considered as representative of a narrow leaflet hemp biotype (NLH), most landraces of Chinese cannabis are characterized as a broad leaflet hemp (BLH) biotype. (Russo et al., 2008) (see Figure 2). Chinese hemp has strong fiber and is generally not psychoactive, but DNA and chemotype distinctions suggest that Chinese hemp is more closely linked genetically to C. sativa subsp. indica [ = C. indica Lamarck] than to European hemp (C. sativa subs. sativa [ = C. sativa L.]) (Hillig and Mahlberg, 2004; Hillig, 2005). Accordingly, Chinese hemp expresses the BT alleles necessary for the biosynthesis of THC more prominently than European hemp, even though long-term selection for fiber has led Chinese hemp to produce only low levels of THC (Clarke and Merlin, 2013). This suggests that drug and fiber biotypes of cannabis in China may have shared a common ancestor and diverged through human selection, but the precise timeline of fiber hemp's increasing dominance in the Chinese gene pool remains unclear.

    FIGURE 2

    Figure 2. Broad-leaflet hemp in Guangxi province, China.

    Recent archeological evidence from a 2700 year old tomb discovered in the Yanghai region of China's Xinjiang province suggests that drug biotypes of cannabis were known to the ancient inhabitants of the region (Jiang et al., 2006), and genetic testing has shown that the 2700 year old cannabis specimens from the tomb maintain some similarities to feral cannabis that remains in the surrounding region today (Mukherjee et al., 2008). However, the Yanghai tomb housed a body of Caucasian ancestry (Russo et al., 2008), and the region was located well outside of the boundary of early Chinese cultural influence. In more central Chinese regions, archeological artifacts provide abundant evidence of hemp fiber but little evidence of drug cannabis, suggesting that the historical divergence of fiber and drug biotypes occurred early in Chinese history (Clarke and Merlin, 2013).

    Today, cannabis landraces throughout most regions of China reflect fiber biotypes, and some provincial standards have followed international trends by defining fiber biotypes for cultivation as varieties containing <0.3% Δ9-THC by weight (Lu et al., 2007). In modern China, intermediate and drug biotypes have primarily been reported in isolated regions in the northwest province of Xinjiang and the southwest province of Yunnan (Zhan et al., 1994; Hu et al., 2015) (see Figure 3). Drug use of cannabis in Xinjiang province was recorded along the Silk Road from the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 AD) to the twentieth century, and was described in a report by the Russian explorer Shoqan Walikhanov in 1858 (Ali et al., 2004; Zhou, 2015); however, there is little evidence outside of bencao literature that suggests that drug cannabis was known or used in other parts of ancient China. Furthermore, according to texts that focus on the history of drug prohibition in China, there is little evidence that cannabis was either abused or prohibited in China prior to the first documented seizures of imported cannabis products in Xinjiang in 1936 (Ali et al., 2004; Qi and Hu, 2004). This stands in notable contrast to other drugs that have a well-documented history of regulation, medical use, abuse, and prohibition in China, such as opium and deliriant drugs derived from tropane alkaloid-containing plants such as henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.) and datura (Datura spp.; Li, 1999; Qi and Hu, 2004).

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    FIGURE 3

    Figure 3. Feral cannabis in Yunnan province, China.

    On the whole, the abundance of references to hemp and the paucity of references to drug cannabis in early Chinese history suggest that fiber and drug varieties had diverged by ancient times. As cannabis is wind-pollinated and its biotype distinctions are genetically determined, the long-term and abundant cultivation of fiber-rich biotypes in China likely supplanted or diluted any drug biotypes that were once present. However, the timeline of this process has been poorly elucidated, and bencao literature suggests that drug effects of cannabis were recognized in Chinese medicine from ancient times up through Ming dynasty texts written in the sixteenth century AD. This curious anomaly suggests that the evolution of Chinese cannabis biotypes may have taken place gradually, and merits further investigation to determine if bencao literature can help to clarify when fiber and drug biotypes diverged in ancient China, and the implications of such a divergence on its medical applications.

    Materials and Methods
    Pre-modern Chinese materia medica texts, known as bencao, were systematically reviewed to investigate the historical applications of different parts of the cannabis plant. In particular, records related to plant parts such as the flowers and leaves were comprehensively investigated for applications that may relate to cannabinoids such as CBD and Δ9-THC; such records may also help to clarify the evolution of fiber vs. drug biotypes of cannabis in ancient China.

    Representative bencao texts were selected for analysis, including influential bencao texts from different dynastic periods, thematic bencao texts dedicated to specialized topics, and regional bencao texts dedicated to specific geographic regions (Zhao and Chen, 2014). Additionally, modern Chinese materia medica compilations as well as texts focused on ethnic minority traditions in China were reviewed. The selected texts were organized chronologically by dynasty, and monographs on cannabis from bencao texts representing different historical periods were reviewed. The sources were analyzed based on the plant parts that were described, as well as the nature, flavor, actions and indications of the various cannabis materials within.

    A diverse range of properties and indications have been ascribed to various parts of the cannabis plant over the centuries, and space limitations preclude a comprehensive translation of all the bencao records related to cannabis. Thus, special attention was given to tracing the historical development of applications related to seizures, pain, and mental effects or mental illness, as these conditions have been the subject of extensive research in the context of cannabinoids such as CBD and Δ9-THC (Mechoulam et al., 2002; Devinsky et al., 2014). As cannabinoids are primarily concentrated in the female flowering tops and leaves rather than the achenes, cortex, and roots, these plant parts were emphasized in this review.

    Selection of Texts and Textual Editions
    Authentic editions of over 800 historical bencao texts are collected together in a set known as the Complete Ben Cao (本草全書 Ben Cao Quan Shu); a set of this compilation stored at Hong Kong Baptist University was used as a primary reference in this study. In particular, five influential texts from different dynasties are recognized as milestones in bencao literature (Zhao and Chen, 2014); these texts were extensively reviewed and are detailed in Table 1. Multiple textual editions were reviewed for each of these bencao texts to ensure accuracy and textual integrity.

    TABLE 1

    Table 1. Influential bencao from different dynastic periods.

    For example, the longest and most detailed monograph on cannabis in the bencao literature is found in the sixteenth century Compendium of Materia Medica (Ben Cao Gang Mu) by Li Shizhen, which is widely regarded as the pinnacle achievement of bencao literature. For the review of this text, three authoritative editions were selected to ensure textual accuracy. The editions reviewed included an original copy of the 1603 AD “Shiquge (石渠閣)” print run of the Compendium of Materia Medica from the collection of Sir Hans Sloane at the British Library (see Figure 4), as well as a modern reproduction of the original “Jinling (金陵)” edition of the Compendium of Materia Medica (Li, 1999), and an authoritative modern annotated edition known as Compendium of Materia Medica Research (Liu et al., 2009).
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    Gene Ching
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    Author of Shaolin Trips
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